Motivation

Course Notes Table of Contents

Learning Objectives

  1. Define motivation
  2. Describe the five dimensions associated with Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and some of the “caveats” or exceptions under which its assumptions are invalid
  3. Describe the difference between motivators and hygiene factors
  4. Describe McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory and which combination of needs is most strongly associated with managers
  5. Compare the three equity groups (Benevolents, Entitleds, Equity Sensitives)
  6. and describe the conditions at work under which they are most comfortable
  7. Describe the difference between high and low self-monitors and the perks that high self-monitors may experience at work
  8. Define the three components of expectancy theory and the one situation that contributes to goal-directed performance
  9. Describe the limiting conditions of Goal Setting Theory
  10. List the components of the Job Characteristics Model and ways in which company can provide a greater degree of each of these components in jobs
  11. Define self-esteem and fear of success. What is the difference between the two, and how can bosses differentially motivate these types?
  12. Describe the difference between Type A and Type B, and which type is associated with managerial success
  13. Discuss what conditions contribute to ADD, and how managers can motivate ADD individuals
  14. Define “logo items,” and list examples of these. Be prepared to discuss some of the unique motivational gifts used at Mary Kay Cosmetics

Motivational story...also see video

Motivation is concerned with eliciting “discretionary output,” or the level of effort which is between the bare minimum that an employee can produce and his or her maximum output. Motivation in large part is dependent on managerial behaviors that have little do with an increase in an employee's actual paycheck. In this unit we will discuss both functional and dysfunctional managerial actions, along with ways to motivate a host of different personality types.

 

Early Theories of Motivation

List some basic needs that human beings have….also, list some specific needs that you wish to have satisfied at your place of employment.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs

  1. Physiological: If an employee’s physiological needs are satisfied, they are receiving a salary adequate to pay their basic bills – utilities, food, and rent. In terms of motivation, what are the consequences when individuals receive a wage that is insufficient to cover their basic needs? What will this motivate them to do? What in your opinion are the psychological consequences of underpayment?
  2. Safety: If an employee’s safety needs are satisfied, they feel physically safe at work in terms of equipment (compliance with OSHA – Occupational Safety and Health Administration Standards).  In addition, they feel they are in a “safe” psychological environment, in that they are not harassed or demeaned by their coworkers.
  3. Belonging: If an employee’s belongingness needs are satisfied, he/she feels integrated within the social fabric of the organization. He/she will also look forward to coming to work because it is a place to meet friends, as well as to accomplish important work related goals. In what ways can an organization make you feel that you part of the team? In what ways (small and large) can it extend membership?

Boot camp vs. Buddy approach

  1. Esteem: If an employee’s esteem needs are met, he or she feels adequately recognized. Recognition can include (but is not limited to) raises, verbal and written praise, and discretion to perform one’s activities within parameters. See more about  "happy employees make happy customers"

Exercise

On the web, look up the Mary Kay Cosmetics company. In what ways does it recognize its employees? What is its corporate philosophy?

  1. Self-actualization: If an employee is self-actualized, then he or she is operating at his or her potential. It is at this point that individuals are using their abilities and natural gifts to their fullest. Only when all of the previous needs in the hierarchy are satisfied will an employee be motivated to put forth the maximum amount of discretionary effort.

CAVEATS:

  • Not everyone wants to self-actualize, and some individuals may actually be content in jobs that do not challenge their abilities. Job enlargement or job enrichment may therefore not work with these employees.
  • Maslow’s theory (as well as the others that we will study in this unit) were formulated by researchers within the U.S., and are therefore peculiar to Western cultures. In collectivistic cultures, or ones that place great emphasis on relationship, the most prominent need may in fact be social/belongingness. An attempt to create an individualistic/competitive work setting in terms of rewards/ergonomics may backfire in those cultures. Countries high in uncertainty avoidance (e.g., Japan and Mexico) may stress policies that promote job security.

 large severance packages - three months or more, even for employees with low tenure

 “Worst Employee of the Month” – difficult to fire

Scenario 1

You are working for a company that, for economic reasons, has not been able to give an annual raise. In what non-monetary ways could the company reward you?

Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
 

Motivators Hygiene Factors
Achievement Supervision
Recognition Company policy

Work itself

 Relationship with supervisor
Responsibility Working Conditions
Advancement Salary

Source: Robbins & Coulter, Management, 2005

Hygiene factors: not associated with job satisfaction or increased motivation to perform additional or better work.

Scenario 2

You have just completed a long assignment that resulted in a significant cost savings for your company. Your boss wants to reward you. He/she offers a choice between the following:

  1. A written commendation that is signed by the divisional vice president, which is posted in a highly visible glass display case in the lobby
  2. A $500 check.

Which option would you choose? Why?

McClelland’s Three Needs Theory (Quiz)

  1. nAch: Need for Achievement – desire to excel; need for rapid feedback and challenging goals
  2. nPow: Need for Power – need to be in charge, dominate
  3. nAff: Need for Affiliation – desire to be liked and accepted

Which combination in your opinion would produce the most effective manager? Why?

  • Low nPow/High nAff
  • High nPow/Low nAff
  • Low nAff/High nAch

Equity Theory

We are continually performing a “mental calculus” with regard to what we put into a situation (inputs) and what we receive from it. If we perceive that our input/outcome ratio is equal to that of our peers, a state of equity exists. Individuals are not concerned with absolute pay, but with their pay in relation to their peers.

Who currently is the best paid athlete?

Equity sensitive test

Researchers have determined that some groups are more (or less) sensitive to an imbalance in equity. The groups identified are:
 

Equity Sensitives want to be paid equitably for comparable work
Benevolents want to be paid less and work the same amount, or be the same and work more (peace corps, doctors without borders, and volunteers would fall into this grouping).
Entitleds want to be paid more and work the same amount, or be paid the same and work less. Most individuals however have a high tolerance for overpayment.

Source: Robbins, Organizational Behavior, 1993

Scenario 3

You have discovered that your colleague, Elmore, is making considerably more money than you at your place of employment, even though he has less work experience than you and is less qualified.

  • What would you do?
      • In response to inequity, individuals can:
        Change their inputs
      • Distort their perceptions of others
        • Choose a different referent

    • Quit

  • What types of things do you think Elmore is doing to garner his favored position?

Self-monitoring test

Capable of behaving as "behavioral chameleons"
Engage in "mirroring"
Have the capability of behaving in a disingenuous manner
Contrast these with WYSIWG, or low self-monitors, who wear their heart on their sleeve
 

Scenario 4

You have discovered that your colleague, Elmore, is making significantly less money than you, despite the fact that this individual is more qualified than you and has more work experience.

  1. What would you do?

Expectancy Theory

Expectancy theory was formulated by Victor Vroom as part of his dissertation. In a nutshell, Vroom suggested that motivation is a tri-dimensional, multiplicative concept. In other words, if any of the components is non-existent (e.g., zero), then one will be unmotivated to put forth effort toward that particular goal. Effort to act in Vroom’s opinion is composed of:
 

  • Expectancy: the belief that effort will lead to a desired outcome. Some classes for example may be so difficult that no amount of study will result in the desired grade.
     
  • Instrumentality: the belief that an outcome will be followed by a reward – that good performance (e.g., in a course) will be assigned a correspondingly high grade. But:   what if your instructor uses forced ranking or bell curve?
     
  • Valence: The attractiveness of an outcome. Is a high grade a motivator? What about the attractiveness of rewards at work (e.g., time off and a flexible schedule vs. more money?) Would valence vary by culture?

International motivation:

  • Mexico  (highly collectivist)
  • Scandinavia (high quality of life)

 As a manager, what types of incentives and/or benefits would you need to provide to individuals in these countries?

Cafeteria Benefits

Goal Setting Theory

Specific, difficult goals produce the greatest motivation

Scenario 6

Jane is working for XYZ company. It has assigned her the task of beer taster for its new line of brews. Will Jane's motivation to perform this job be high or low?  On what will this depend? 

Goal commitment

Self-efficacy

National Culture

Job Characteristics Model
 

Skill Variety  The number of different activities in a job
Task identity Completion of a whole task
Task significance Does the job impact other people
Autonomy Freedom, independence
Feedback Information about performance

Questions

  1. How can you increase the skill variety in a job?
  2. What would be an example of “completion of a whole and identifiable” task
  3. What types of things could your employer do to give you greater flexibility?
  • Flextime
  • Job Sharing
  • Telecommuting – “Telecommuting Affinity Index” 
  • What are some advantages and disadvantages of telecommuting?
  • Teams – Volvo, Saturn

The above are examples of which Job Characteristics dimension? Which dimension is most important to you? Why?

Flexible Benefits in Europe:  http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/pubdocs/2007/39/en/1/ef0739en.pdf; also see "Radical Sabbaticals"

Employee Recognition

Logo items: trinkets embossed with the company emblem, most often given for good performance

These can include

  • Pens
  • Toys
  • Stuffed animals
  • Food items (e.g., turkeys)
  • Clothing
  • Others?

Associated websites:

Individual Differences

Self-esteem: one’s self concept, which is most often shaped by other people.

  • Low self-esteems: more difficult to motivate
  • Engage in negative self-appraisal
  • Compared to high SEs, set lower expectations for themselves
  • Engage in attribution error
  • Successes are considered a whim or a fluke
  • Failures are a personal problem

Fear of Success

A damaged self-image can be a detriment to obtaining success at work.

Individuals who suffer from Fear of Success are uncomfortable being happy because they have previously endured “psychic harm”. They feel that they do not deserve what they have.

Phobia: an uncontrollable and persistent fear of a specific object, situation or activity (American Psychiatric Association)
 

Amathophobia Fear of dust
Anananany The inability to stop spelling "banana" once you've started
Androphobia Fear of men
Anthropophobia Fear of human beings
Archibutryrophobia Fear of peanut butter sticking to the roof of your mouth
Friendorphobia Fear of being asked "Who goes there?"
Friggaphobics People who fear Fridays
Genuphobia Fear of knees
Graphophobia Fear of writing
Heortophobia Fear of holidays
Iophobia Fear of rust
Katagelophobia Fear of ridicule
Lyssophobia Fear of insanity
Peniaphobia Fear of poverty
Phobaphobia Fear of fear

Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD)

Symptoms:

  • Poor impulse control
  • Quick to anger
  • Lose things
  • Forget things
  • Inattention
  • Impulsiveness
  • Hyperactivity
  1. How can you as a supervisor help an employee with ADD?
  2. What work accommodations would you make?

Type A

Type A Characteristics:

  • Hardworking
  • Impatient
  • Aggressive
  • Rushed
  • High expectations of themselves and others
  • Play to win
  • Lack of interpersonal sensitivity

Kelly has been one of the star performers in your company. By far, he is the most talented engineer. His stellar performance has garnered him a promotion to section manager, a position in which he will be supervising a large number of people. Kelly is also a Type A.

What type of problems do you anticipate Kelly will have in a team setting?

Scenario 7

You have just been appointed leader of a four person team. Your team members each have very different personalities…one is a “Type A” personality, one is extremely achievement oriented, and yet another suffers from “fear of success” and low self-esteem. How would you differentially motivate these individuals, given that each is receiving the same cost of living increase?
 

Type A Fear of Success Low self-esteem
     
     
     

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